What Is The Genetic Makeup Of Bulgarians
PLoS 1. 2013; 8(3): e56779.
Y-Chromosome Diversity in Modernistic Bulgarians: New Clues virtually Their Beginnings
Sena Karachanak
1 Section of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Republic of bulgaria,
ii Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy,
Viola Grugni
2 Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy,
Simona Fornarino
ii Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "50. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italian republic,
Desislava Nesheva
one Department of Medical Genetics, Medical Academy of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria,
Nadia Al-Zahery
ii Dipartimento di Biologia eastward Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy,
Vincenza Battaglia
2 Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italian republic,
Valeria Carossa
2 Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy,
Yordan Yordanov
3 Institute of Experimental Morphology and Anthropology with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria,
Antonio Torroni
ii Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "Fifty. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy,
Angel S. Galabov
4 The Stephan Angeloff Found of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria,
Draga Toncheva
1 Department of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Republic of bulgaria,
Ornella Semino
2 Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italia,
Luísa Maria Sousa Mesquita Pereira, Editor
Received 2012 Aug 30; Accepted 2013 Jan 15.
- Supplementary Materials
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Figure S1: Median-joining networks for haplogroups I-M423, East-V13, R-M458, R-L23* and J-M241. For each network, circles and colored sectors are sized according to the number of subjects sharing the haplotype, every bit the smallest circles and sectors represent one subject field. The lengths of the connecting lines are proportional to the number of mutational steps separating ii haplotypes.
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Table S1: Details concerning the examined biallelic markers.
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Table S2: Accented frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups and subhaplogroups in the 40 populations included in the PCA of effigy 3A .
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Tabular array S3: Accented frequencies of the main Y-chromosome haplogroups in the 44 populations included in the PCA of figure 3B .
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Table S4: Absolute frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in the 27 populations included in the PCA of effigy 3C .
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Tabular array S5: Y-STR haplotypes (17 loci) observed in the Bulgarian samples analyzed.
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Table S6: Y-STR data used to appraise the variation within haplogroups E-V13, I-M423, J-M241, R-L23*, R-M458, R-U106 and R-U152.
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Table S7: Age estimates of microsatellite variation and Standard Error inside haplogroups E-V13, I-M423, J-M241, M458, R-L23*, R-U106 and R-U152 in Bulgarians and other Eurasian populations. The number of samples considered is given in parentheses.
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Abstract
To better ascertain the structure and origin of the Bulgarian paternal genetic pool, we have examined the Y-chromosome variation in 808 Bulgarian males. The analysis was performed by high-resolution genotyping of biallelic markers and by analyzing the STR variation inside the most informative haplogroups. Nosotros found that the Y-chromosome genetic pool in mod Bulgarians is primarily represented by Western Eurasian haplogroups with ∼ 40% belonging to haplogroups E-V13 and I-M423, and twenty% to R-M17. Haplogroups common in the Middle E (J and G) and in Due south Western Asia (R-L23*) occur at frequencies of 19% and 5%, respectively. Haplogroups C, N and Q, distinctive for Altaic and Central Asian Turkic-speaking populations, occur at the negligible frequency of only 1.5%. Principal Component analyses grouping Bulgarians with European populations, apart from Central Asian Turkic-speaking groups and South Western asia populations. Within the country, the genetic variation is structured in Western, Primal and Eastern Bulgaria indicating that the Balkan Mountains have been permeable to human movements. The lineage analysis provided the following interesting results: (i) R-L23* is nowadays in Eastern Bulgaria since the post glacial flow; (2) haplogroup E-V13 has a Mesolithic age in Bulgaria from where it expanded after the arrival of farming; (three) haplogroup J-M241 probably reflects the Neolithic westward expansion of farmers from the primeval sites along the Black Sea. On the whole, in light of the virtually recent historical studies, which indicate a substantial proto-Bulgarian input to the gimmicky Bulgarian people, our data suggest that a common paternal beginnings betwixt the proto-Bulgarians and the Altaic and Key Asian Turkic-speaking populations either did non exist or was negligible.
Introduction
Bulgaria is situated in the eastern function of the Balkan Peninsula, on the shores of the Blackness Body of water linking Southeastern Europe to the Eurasian steppe also as Anatolia and the Aegean islands. It lies on the postulated pathway that introduced modernistic humans into Europe in the Upper Paleolithic every bit attested by the series of assemblages at Bacho Kiro and Temnata Dupka Caves, which are considered signs of the Aurignacian culture expansion ∼ 40 kya [1]–[3]. It appears to take remained habitable even during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) [four] fuelling different expansion routes of mail-glacial re-colonization. The presence in Republic of bulgaria of some of the earliest farming sites, as well as some of the primeval evidence of copper metallurgy in Europe, indicates that this area also played a pregnant office in the Neolithic spread. On the other hand, the Kurgan expansion, triggered by the adoption of pastoral nomadism by peoples in the Pontic Steppes and past the domestication of the horse, spread into the Balkans in three waves ∼ 4 ky BC through Bulgarian territory [v].
In terms of history, the earliest amongst well-documented civilizations that inhabited present-day Bulgaria are the Thracians whose cultural legacy is however evident in the modern land, especially in its southern part. Two other populations playing an of import role in the Bulgarian ethnogenesis were the Slavs and the proto-Bulgarians, who arrived almost simultaneously in the Early Eye Ages.
Until recently, it was considered that proto-Bulgarians, who founded the Danubian (Asparukh) Bulgaria (ancestor of the present-solar day Bulgaria) in the late seventh century Advert, were a sparse Turkic population, which took the leadership and ruled over much more numerous Slavic populations living in the same expanse. From this scenario arose the notion that proto-Bulgarians did not play a significant part in the formation of the gene pool of contemporary Bulgarians.
The initial homeland of the proto-Bulgarians, called Balhara by Indians and Bactria by Greeks, was situated in the foothills of Pamir and Hindu Kush Mountains. In antiquity and the early Middle Ages, proto-Bulgarians founded iii big and stable states in Europe: the first i was chosen "Old Great Bulgaria" (Η Παλαιά Μεγάλη Βουλγαρία) by the scholars of the Eastern Roman Empire and was situated in the expanse delimited past the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea and Dnieper River. Later on but almost simultaneously 2 other large states were established:Volga-Kama Bulgaria and Asparukh (Danubian) Republic of bulgaria [6]–[12].
In their states, proto-Bulgarians built a number of towns-fortresses (Bulkhar-Balkh in the Eastward Caucasus, Bilar and Bolgar on the Volga, Bolgarfehervar north of the Danube, and Pliska, the beginning capital of Danubian Bulgaria) likewise as a defensive wall connecting the Danube and the Black Sea called "The Great Wall" [6], [8], [9], [11], [12]. Proto-Bulgarians were not only founders and organizers of state and unique military power, simply they were as well carriers of a adult culture embracing the economic system and creative civilization [viii], [10], [xi]. On the other mitt, it is well known that at the time of the Danubian Bulgaria foundation Slavic tribes in the Balkans did not have whatever significant state and military organization [xiii].
Novel analyses of proto-Bulgarians epigraphic monuments, especially, of the major historical inscription – "the Listing of the Bulgarian Khans" - have revealed that the proto-Bulgarian language did not belong to the Turkic linguistic family. Therefore, leading turkologists [14]–[sixteen] do non consider proto-Bulgarians a Turkic people, as also attested past the adoption of distinctive agenda systems by the ii groups [17]. Differently, for grammatical features the proto-Bulgarian language gravitates towards the Pamir languages of the E Iranian grouping, which belong to the Indo-European branch. Despite its Slavic basis, the contemporary Bulgarian linguistic communication contains many traces of the proto-Bulgarian linguistic communication such as the kinship terminology organisation, an abundance of doublets for the aforementioned notion, a series of names of body parts, objects of material culture, and a slap-up number of verbs and adjectives that are not found in either Slavic or Turkic languages, simply are widely present in the Pamir languages [vi], [10], [eighteen].
One of the nearly important discoveries near Bulgarian history was recently published [10], [13], [19]. It shows that an entire array of previously unknown sources written in 4 languages - Old Bulgarian, Greek, Old High german and Hebrew-Khazar - unanimously draw proto-Bulgarians every bit a quite numerous people [20]. In all of these sources proto-Bulgarians were referred to using like expressions: "countless" [21], "too big and enormous population" (The Miracles of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki), "numerous as the sand by the bounding main" (the letter of the alphabet from the Kagan of Khazaria Joseph; 961 AD), "and then numerous that they did non need to build fortresses for defense" ("The Bavarian Geographer") [20]. Some similar expressions were used even by the early Bulgarian rulers Omurtag and Presian [22]. Archaeological investigations have recently revealed that proto-Bulgarians represented a substantial function (evaluated in at least 32% [23] and even 60% [thirteen], [19]) of the early Bulgarian population. An indirect indicator of the numerousness of proto-Bulgarians was the great number of their victorious war campaigns over the powerful Eastern Roman Empire (including the crushing defeat of Byzantium by Asparukh in 680 Advertizement [20]) and the victory over the Arabs in 716 AD, which besieged Constantinople. But a country with an ground forces exceeding 100,000 soldiers was capable for such attacks. Plain, the studies mentioned above propose that proto-Bulgarians played a substantial role in the formation of the Bulgarian people.
From a genetic signal of view, contempo analyses of mtDNA [24] and autosomal [25], variation locate modern Bulgarians betwixt Eastern European and Mediterranean populations. In item, virtually the unabridged Bulgarian mtDNA pool has West Eurasian origin and includes signature lineages of all the European peopling events from the Upper Paleolithic colonization of Europe to the more contempo onset of the Neolithic in Europe [24]. Scarce information is all the same available for the patrilineal Bulgarian genetic pool that, for its holoandric transmission, could retain signs of male person mediated by migrations not necessarily detectable past mtDNA. To accost this deficiency, we accept conducted a high-resolution biallelic marker analysis of 808 Y chromosomes from contemporary Bulgarians, followed past a survey of microsatellite variation within the near informative haplogroups (Hgs). The observed diversity patterns were analyzed at both macro- and micro-geographic levels. This immune u.s.a. to found a link between Y-chromosome lineages in modern Bulgarians and known prehistoric and historic events.
Materials and Methods
Sample Drove
We genotyped a total of 808 Dna samples from unrelated Bulgarian males. All of them gave informed consent and provided personal genealogical data prior to the sampling. Only individuals whose fathers were of Bulgarian origin and were born in the country were included in the written report. The analyzed samples are a subset of those previously investigated for mtDNA variation [24].
In accordance with a comprehensive anthropological study of Bulgarians [26] we classified the samples according to the former (before 1999) authoritative subdivision of the country (Effigy i). Thus, based on information on the paternal birthplace, 739 of the samples were unambiguously assigned to one of the nine provinces of Bulgaria, namely: Burgas (N = 45), Haskovo (N = 41), Lovech (N = 62), Montana (N = 80), Plovdiv (North = 159), Razgrad (N = 21), Sofia metropolis (N = 59), Sofia province (N = 257), Varna (N = 15).
Map of Bulgaria outlining the one-time administrative provinces within which samples were allocated.
The provinces are indicated as follows: i. Burgas; 2. Varna; 3. Lovech; 4. Montana; 5. Plovdiv; 6. Razgrad; seven. Sofia Urban center; viii. Sofia Province and 9. Haskovo.
Ethics statement
This research has been approved by the Ideals Committee for Clinical Experimentation of the University of Pavia, Board minutes of the 5thursday of October 2010. Geographical and genealogy data were ascertained by interview later on having obtained their written informed consent.
Genotyping
In lodge to identify the haplogroups characterizing the Bulgarian male person cistron puddle, nosotros analyzed 75 biallelic markers. Markers M89 and M9 were analyzed in all samples; signature markers of haplogroups and sub-haplogroups (encounter phylogeny of Effigy two) where analyzed in a hierarchical way. Their genotyping was performed in hierarchical club, following the latest Y-chromosome phylogeny [27]. The YAP Alu insertion was analyzed by amplicon size detection, whereas all other markers were genotyped past PCR/RFLP, PCR/DHPLC assay or direct sequencing (Tabular array S1). Haplogroups were labelled according to the mutation-based nomenclature rules proposed by the Y Chromosome Consortium [28].
Phylogenetic relationships and percent frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in each of the former provinces and in Bulgarians every bit a whole.
The post-obit markers: M2 (inside Hg E), M365, M367, M368, M390 (within Hg J), M120, M323 (within Hg Q) and M529 (within Hg R) were typed simply non observed.
Haplotyping was mainly performed on samples belonging to haplogroups East-V13, I-M423, J-M241, R-M458, R-L23*, R-U106 and R-U152. The following 17 Y-STR loci: DYS19, DYS385 a/b, DYS389I/Ii, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438, DYS439, DYS448, DYS456, DYS458, DYS635 and Y-GATA H4 were amplified using the multiplex AmpFl/STR Y Filer Kit (Applied Biosystems) and read on ABI 310 genetic analyzer with GeneMapper software.
Statistical Analyses
Principal Component Analyses (PCA) were performed to produce two-dimensional plots displaying the relationships between Bulgarians and other populations, equally determined by Y-chromosome haplogroup frequencies. The PCA assay was carried out using Excel through XLStat add-in.
The evaluation of the genetic structure in Republic of bulgaria was achieved past analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) [29] carried out with Arlequin 3.v software [30]. In addition to the inter- and intra-regional variance analysis, 2 more AMOVA analyses were performed past subdividing the Bulgarian samples according to geographical and physico-geographical criteria. The geographic subdivision into Western, Cardinal and Eastern Bulgaria, which turned out to be the most informative (with significant variance amid groups), was adopted to evaluate the haplogroup STR variation used to estimate the upper bounds of expansion times.
Fourth dimension estimates were performed only when more than five observations per population/region were bachelor. Ages based on microsatellite variation within binary haplogroups were defined past the methodology of Zhivotovsky et al. [31] as modified according to Sengupta et al. [32]. In particular, it was estimated as the average squared divergence in the number of repeats between all current chromosomes and the median haplotype, averaged over microsatellite loci and divided by the effective mutation rate of 6.nine×10−4 per 25 years, with the SE computed over loci [31] (details, in Appendix A of Sengupta et al. [32]. A microsatellite evolutionary effective mutation rate of six.9×10−4 per generation (25 years) was used [31] since it is suitable for use in situations where the elapsed time frame is ≥1000 years or ∼ 40 generations [33], appropriate given the prehistoric time depths explored in this study. It is worth mentioning that ambiguities related to past episodes of population history (e.chiliad.: size fluctuations, bottlenecks, etc) create inherent uncertainties in the scale of the Y-STR molecular clock, thus the estimated ages of microsatellite variation should be considered with caution.
In guild to brand relevant comparisons with previously analyzed populations/regions [34]–[37] haplogroup age estimates were (re-) calculated on a unified set of STR loci. In item, analyses of STR variation within haplogroups were based on 8 STR loci (DYS19, DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393 and DYS439), with the exception of Hg R-M458, for which the STR profiles were further reduced to seven loci (DYS19, DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392 and DYS439).
Phylogenetic relationships of STR haplotypes inside haplogroups I-M423, E-V13, R-M458, R-L23* and J-M241 were depicted past constructing median-joining (MJ) networks [38] using the Network 4.5.1.six plan (www.fluxus-engineering.com). The networks were calculated after having processed the information with the reduced-median method [39] and after having weighted the STR loci proportionally to the changed of the repeat variance.
Results and Discussion
Haplogroup Frequency Distribution
From the full of 75 binary markers genotyped, l turned out to exist informative. The near parsimonious relationships and the frequencies of the corresponding haplogroups are presented in Figure two.
Western Eurasian haplogroups were establish to encompass almost the entire Bulgarian Y-chromosome pool. Contributions from Central Asia (Hg C-M217) [40], [41], Northern Eurasia (Hg North-M231) and South West Asia (Hg Q-M242 derivatives, Hg L-M61 and Hg R-M124) [32], [42] were detected at almost negligible frequencies.
The most prevalent haplogroups in Bulgarians are I-M423 (twenty.2%) and Due east-V13 (18.1%). They represent the autochthonous and nearly endemic sub-clades of I-P37 and E-M78 in Southeastern Europe, respectively [34], [43]. Third in frequency is the common Eurasian haplogroup R-M17, which was found in 17.v% of Bulgarians, with 42.9% of them belonging to the European specific R-M458 sub-clade [36]. Haplogroup R-L23*, the eastern co-operative of the western Eurasian R-M269 haplogroup [37], relates the paternal ancestry of 5.ii% of Bulgarians, representing nearly half of the M269 derived Y chromosomes. Next in frequency is Hg I-M253 (iv.iii%), which accounts for the bulk of haplogroup I-M170 individuals in Northern Europe [44], [45]. Information technology is followed past 2 J-M172 sub-branches, namely J-M241 and J-M530, observed at a frequency of 3.8% and 2.4%, respectively. The rest of the phylogenetically terminal haplogroups harboured frequency values of less than 2%.
Y-chromosome Haplogroup Structure of Bulgarians at Macro- and Micro-Geographic Scales
In society to investigate the position of the Bulgarian population in the Euro-Asiatic context, PC analyses on haplogroup frequencies were carried out using informative literature data normalized to the highest possible binary phylogenetic resolution.
The first PC analysis was conducted on haplogroup frequencies in Eurasian and African populations analyzed at the aforementioned loftier level of phylogenetic resolution reached in this survey (Table S2). The resulting PCA plot (Figure 3A) distinguishes four primary clusters of populations: East Africans, Europeans, North African and Heart Eastern Arabic populations, and a S Due west Asian cluster formed by Turks, Iranians, Caucasus populations and Pakistanis. As shown in the inset plot, which illustrates the contribution of each haplogroup, the longitudinal separation along the starting time PC is mainly ascribable, on one side, to Hg I-M170 (almost restricted to Europe) and Hg E-M78 (frequently occurring in Eastward Africa and Southeast Europe) and, at the contrary extreme, to Hgs L-M61 and R-M124 (frequent in Southern asia). The second PC separates populations by latitude, every bit Hgs R-M17 and R-M458 are most frequent in Europeans, Hgs A-M91, B-M60 and Eastward-P2 are almost sectional to East African groups and Hgs East-M123 and J-M267 are most frequent in North Africa and the Southern Middle East. Europeans separate from Turks, Caucasus populations, Iranians and Pakistanis along the PC1 and from Standard arabic and East African populations along the PC2. In the plot of this analysis, Bulgarians distribute within the European cluster, very close to Macedonian Greeks, only relatively far from their south-eastern neighbours - the Turks. The affinities shown in Effigy 3A corroborate those displayed in a genome-broad PC analysis involving several hundred subjects (including xiii Bulgarians) genotyped at several g genome autosomal SNPs [25].
Principal components plots based on Y-chromosome haplogroup frequencies.
(A) African and Eurasian populations analyzed at the highest level of phylogenetic resolution, (B) Bulgaria in the European context, at a lower level of phylogenetic resolution, and (C) Bulgaria in the Asian context, based only on informative Asian markers. Data and abbreviations are provided in Tables two–4. Numbers in brackets betoken the proportion of the total genetic information retained by a given PC. Inset plot illustrates the contribution of each haplogroup.
In the other ii PC analyses the position of the Bulgarian Y-chromosome genetic pool was investigated in the European (Figure 3B) and Asian (Effigy 3C) contexts, through the assay of the most frequent European (Table S3) and Asian (Table S4) haplogroups, respectively.
In the plot of Figure 3B, the distribution of the populations along the PC1 reflects the prevalence of Hg I-M170 in Scandinavia and the Eastern Adriatic, the predominance of Hg R-M17 in Northward-Central and Northeastern Europe and the increasing frequency of haplogroup J-M172 towards Italy and the Southern Balkans. The separation along the second component, is mainly due to Hgs E-M35 and P-M45(xR-M17). The first is nigh represented in the Southern Balkans; the 2d is most frequent among Western European populations and, based on previous studies [37], [46], [47] is most probably overwhelmingly represented by haplogroup R-M269. This assay confirms the position of Bulgarians close to Macedonian Greeks and in the proximity of Slavic populations from the Western Balkans, which is not the case with the remainder of the Slavic populations considered.
In the plot of Figure 3C, the populations are distributed in a longitudinal design generated essentially by the PC1. This separation is determined by the prevalence of the East Asian Hg O-M175 and the Central Asian Hg C-RPS4Y in the east and the increasing frequencies of Hgs J-M172 and R-M173 in the west. The PC2, which is mainly due to Hgs I-M170 and Eastward-SRY4064, clearly separates Bulgarians from the compared populations. On the whole, Bulgarians are distant from Altaic populations and populations residing in the n of the Pamir region and they are also distant from Kazan Tatars and Iranians, although to a lesser extent.
The geographical partition of genetic multifariousness in Bulgarians was investigated by AMOVA, the results of which are listed in Tabular array i. The variation amidst populations from the former administrative provinces was small and of uncertain significance (0.38%, p≈0.05); no significant results were obtained when the samples were grouped into physico-geographical regions – the Black Sea declension, the Danubian Plain, Thrace and the southwest mountainous region, and merely barely significant variation among groups (0.49%, p≈0.05) was unexpectedly revealed when the samples were assigned to iii broader geographical regions - Eastern, Cardinal and Western Bulgaria. These findings testify that the mod Bulgarian Y-chromosome cistron pool is rather homogenous and the Balkan Mountains probably did non deed every bit a strong barrier to gene flow.
Tabular array 1
Analysis of molecular variance in populations of the onetime nine provinces of Bulgaria.
| Source of variation | Variance components | Percentage of variation | |
| No grouping | |||
| Among populations | 0.00173* | 0.38 | |
| Within populations | 0.44967 | 99.62 | |
| Group into Eastern, Central and Western Bulgaria (provinces 4, vii and 8 vs provinces three, 5 and nine vs provinces 2, 6 and 1) | |||
| Amid groups | 0.00221* | 0.49 | |
| Among populations within groups | 0.00014 | 0.03 | |
| Within populations | 0.44967* | 99.48 | |
| Grouping into physico-geographical regions (provinces one and two vs provinces 7 and 8 vs provinces 6, iii and 4 vs provinces 5 and 9) | |||
| Among groups | 0.00088 | 0.xix | |
| Among populations within groups | 0.00097 | 0.21 | |
| Within populations | 0.44967 | 99.59 |
Y-STR Variation and Diffusion Patterns of the Main Haplogroups
Subsets of Bulgarians samples belonging to the most frequent haplogroups were further analyzed for 17 STR loci (Table S5) and the obtained results were used to investigate time upper bounds and improvidence patterns.
The networks of the haplotypes (Table S6) associated with haplogroups I-M423, E-V13, R-M458, R-L23*, J-M241 in Bulgaria and in informative populations/regions are illustrated in Figure S1, whereas their relative coalescence times are reported in Tabular array S7. Important caveats to consider are the inherent uncertainties in the calibration of the Y-STR molecular clock and the inflation of the time estimates caused past rare outlier alleles and multiple founders or recurrent cistron flows during population formation.
The network of haplogroup I-M423 is characterized by a star-like shape centred on the most frequent haplotype, present in all Balkan populations. The network topology, together with the age estimates, is in accordance with previous inferences that haplogroup I-M423 is the genetic tape of Balkan Mesolithic foragers and their expansion afterwards the adoption of agronomics [34]. Information technology is worth noticing that the Bulgarian samples are scattered all over the network; belonging to expanded, rare, and unique haplotypes. This diversity is consistent with an associated antiquity of Hg I-M423 in Bulgaria.
Haplogroup E-V13 displays a star-similar network radiating from a central haplotype mainly found in the Balkan populations. This pattern, together with coalescence estimates, points to a contempo and rapid expansion of this lineage in the Balkans. Not considering Bosnian Croats and Macedonian Greeks, for which standard errors are too large, the highest age in the Balkans, dating back to Mesolithic times, is found in Western Bulgaria (ix.3±3 kya). This value, which overlaps that registered in Turkey (x.half-dozen±three kya), indicates that haplogroup Eastward-V13 was already present (if not originated) in Mesolithic times in Western Bulgaria from where it underwent expansion with the transition to farming.
The network of Y-STR haplotypes associated with Hg R-M458, the European co-operative of haplogroup R-M17/M198, is characterized by a star-like centre of expansion and complex reticulations that tin can be solved only by improving the phylogenetic resolution of this haplogroup. Still, the bulk of the M458 derived samples occupy the star-like portion of the network, in understanding with a North-Central European origin and the subsequent expansion previously reported [36]. Although it is probable that the historic period estimates of this lineage mainly reflect these demographic events, it is not possible to exclude that they are biased by the coexistence of different sub-lineages within this unresolved haplogroup. In this regard, information technology is worth mentioning that, as previously suggested [48]–[50], haplogroup R1a-M17 could be a indicate of various events ranging from early on mail-LGM expansions to more contempo Slavic census. Hence, the erstwhile coalescent times, such as those obtained for Eastern Bulgaria (12.4±v kya) and the Caucasus (10.one±3 kya), should exist considered with caution in that multiple founders (or multiple demographic episodes) can inflate these estimates.
The network of Hg R-L23* is characterized by multiple reticulations, which confirm that this haplogroup includes sub-clades yet to be discovered [37]. The frequency and variance distributions of R-L23 (data not shown), together with its age variation, locate the almost ancient presence of this lineage in the Circum-Pontic region, where similar estimates, congruent with the postal service-glacial period, are registered: sixteen.eight±7 kya in Eastern Bulgaria, 14.three±1 kya in Romania, 14.0±three kya in the Caucasus and 13.6±2 kya in Anatolia. Nosotros abjure from premature conclusions on the coalescent estimate in Eastern Bulgaria since a pregnant portion of this value derives from a very unlike singleton haplotype whose exclusion substantially decreases the age estimate to 9.iii±4 kya.
Haplogroup J-M241 shows a network with the fundamental and nigh frequent haplotype being widespread in the Southern Balkans - a likely issue of a rapid expansion probably started in Neolithic times in Asia Pocket-sized [34]. Since the periphery of the network is mainly occupied past haplotypes establish outside this region (Apulians, Indians and Nepalese) the present results do not provide any useful evidence for the identification of the J-M241 homeland. On the other hand, the high age estimates in these populations could be due to recurrent cistron menstruum from dissimilar sources. Leaving aside Apulians, Indians and Nepalese, the highest ages, compatible with a Neolithic expansion, are obtained in regions effectually the Black Sea, namely Anatolia (9.1±ii kya) and Republic of bulgaria, in particular its central part (seven.viii±three kya). Consequently, in this region, haplogroup J-M241 can exist considered as a genetic signal of the expansion of farmers towards Southeast Europe maybe enhanced past the breaching of the Bosphorus Sill and the flood of the Pontic Lake with marine water.
Conclusions
In the present study nosotros assessed the male-mediated genetic legacy in modern Bulgarians by analyzing their Y-chromosome composition and past surveying the internal variation within the main haplogroups. We found that a major function of the Bulgarian Y-chromosome gene pool is constituted by Western Eurasian haplogroups with a particular affinity to neighbouring groups from the Balkans and Greece, in agreement with previous anthropological [26] and mtDNA studies [24]. When analyzed in a broader context, the Bulgarian haplogroup contour is located among European populations and autonomously from Altaic and Fundamental Asian Turkic-speaking populations.
Within the country, the male person genetic variation is structured amongst Western, Primal and Eastern Bulgaria, rather than among the physico-geographical regions (the Blackness Sea coast, the Danubian Plain, Thrace and the Southwest mountainous region). This blueprint of genetic segmentation indicates that the Balkan Mountains have been permeable to human being movements.
Interesting results from the lineage assay can be summarized as follows: (i) R-L23*, the eastern co-operative of haplogroup R-M269, is present in Eastern Bulgaria since the mail glacial period; (ii) haplogroup E-V13, which probably originated in Western Asia, has a Mesolithic age in Bulgaria from where information technology expanded later on the spread of farming marked by haplogroup Thousand-P15, J-M410 representatives; (iii) haplogroup J-M241 probably reflects the Neolithic westward expansion of farmers from the primeval sites forth the Black Ocean.
In addition, an important consideration arises from the finding that haplogroups C-M217, N-M231 and Q-M242, which are mutual in Altaic and Central Asian Turkic-speaking populations [40], [41], occur at the negligible frequency of only 1.5% in modern Bulgarians. This observation is in agreement with the results of contempo linguistic studies which demonstrated that the proto-Bulgarian language does non belong to the Turkic family but information technology relates to the Indo-European languages of the East Iranian group, whose traces still persist in the modern Bulgarian language, despite its Slavic basis. Thus, taking into business relationship the novel and detailed historical studies indicating that proto-Bulgarians were quite numerous (32% or mayhap even threescore% of the population in early Danubian Bulgaria) [half dozen]–[thirteen], [19], [23], it follows that a shared paternal ancestry between proto-Bulgarians and Altaic and Central Asian Turkic-speaking groups either did not exist or was negligible.
Supporting Data
Figure S1
Median-joining networks for haplogroups I-M423, East-V13, R-M458, R-L23* and J-M241. For each network, circles and colored sectors are sized according to the number of subjects sharing the haplotype, as the smallest circles and sectors represent one subject. The lengths of the connecting lines are proportional to the number of mutational steps separating two haplotypes.
(TIF)
Table S1
Details concerning the examined biallelic markers.
(XLSX)
Table S2
Absolute frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups and subhaplogroups in the xl populations included in the PCA of figure 3A .
(XLSX)
Table S3
Absolute frequencies of the main Y-chromosome haplogroups in the 44 populations included in the PCA of effigy 3B .
(XLSX)
Table S4
Accented frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in the 27 populations included in the PCA of figure 3C .
(XLSX)
Table S5
Y-STR haplotypes (17 loci) observed in the Bulgarian samples analyzed.
(XLSX)
Table S6
Y-STR data used to assess the variation within haplogroups Due east-V13, I-M423, J-M241, R-L23*, R-M458, R-U106 and R-U152.
(XLSX)
Table S7
Age estimates of microsatellite variation and Standard Fault within haplogroups Eastward-V13, I-M423, J-M241, M458, R-L23*, R-U106 and R-U152 in Bulgarians and other Eurasian populations. The number of samples considered is given in parentheses.
(XLSX)
Acknowledgments
We give thanks all donors for providing Dna samples. We are grateful to the staff and the head - R. Stoykov, Md of the Heart of Transfusion Hematology at the Armed forces Medical University in Sofia chaired past Prof. Southward. Tonev for help during the blood sample collection. We give thanks Prof. P. Dobrev for his valuable comments and Dr. P.A. Underhill for valuable remarks on an earlier typhoon of this paper. We also give thanks three bearding reviewers for their useful comments.
Funding Statement
This report was supported by the National Science Fund of Bulgaria, project "Characterization of the anthropo-genetic identity of Bulgarians", contract number DOO 2-110/22.05.2009, and Fondazione Alma Mater Ticinensis (to OS and AT), the Italian Ministry building of the Academy: Progetti Ricerca Interesse Nazionale 2009 (to Bone and AT). NA-Z was supported by a fellowship from the Institute of International Teaching. The funders had no role in study blueprint, data drove and analysis, determination to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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