Does Makeup Raise Or Lower Self Esteem

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The contrasting furnishings of body prototype and cocky-esteem in the makeup usage

• Anthonieta Looman Mafra,
• Caio S. A. Silva,
• Marco A. C. Varella,
• Jaroslava V. Valentova

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• Published: March 25, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/periodical.pone.0265197

Figures

Abstract

Women wearing makeup are perceived by others as more attractive, competent, dominant, and more than socially prestigious. Individuals differ in how much and how frequently they use makeup. Some studies testify that women with lower cocky-esteem use more makeup, probably to hide imperfections. However, women with higher self-esteem tin also use makeup to attract attention. This study verified whether social and general self-esteem and body paradigm are associated with makeup usage in Brazilian women. We collected information from 1,483 women (M _age = 31.08; SD = 11.15) about torso paradigm (advent orientation and appearance evaluation), social cocky-esteem, general cocky-esteem, and makeup usage (frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup per day, and money spent on makeup per month). Appearance orientation positively predicted frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup, and coin spent on makeup, whereas advent evaluation inversely predicted money spent on makeup per calendar month. Social self-esteem and general self-esteem also positively predicted money spent on makeup, but in different directions. The results suggest that the significance given to appearance and social interactions are chiefly associated with makeup usage in women.

Citation: Mafra AL, Silva CSA, Varella MAC, Valentova JV (2022) The contrasting furnishings of torso image and self-esteem in the makeup usage. PLoS I 17(3): e0265197. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

Editor: Piotr Sorokowski, University of Wroclaw, POLAND

Received: July 22, 2021; Accustomed: February 26, 2022; Published: March 25, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Mafra et al. This is an open admission commodity distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in whatsoever medium, provided the original writer and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data used to this paper can be constitute past accessing the following link: https://osf.io/d2z7e/ (DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/D2Z7E).

Funding: AM was supported past the FAPESP (Fundação de amparo à pesquisa do estado de são paulo, Grant number: 2018/16370-five), CS was supported past CNPq (Conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico e tecnológico, Grant number 143811/2019-3), MV was supported by the CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Grant number 33002010037P0—MEC/CAPES).

Competing interests: The authors accept declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Surveys with American women showed that 78% spent one 60 minutes per day on their appearance (eastward.g., hair treatments, dressing upwards, and makeup). Taking on boilerplate 55 minutes of women's day, hair and makeup seemed to demand more than time invested than other advent related behaviors. [i] American women did not only spend time on active appearance enhancing behaviors, but between the most watched categories past women on YouTube, the top two are appearance related [1]. Another study showed that American women spent, on average, ten minutes on makeup in the morning and 85% tended to apply at least 16 products on their faces before leaving abode. The results too concluded that New York women spent around 300,000 Us dollars during their lifetime on facial cosmetics [two]. These examples illustrate the importance American women attribute to physical appearance and self-care [e.g., 3].

Women's attractiveness is an important factor in their lives, affecting how they feel about themselves. Several studies constitute a positive relationship between attractiveness and self-esteem in women [e.chiliad., four, 5]. Cash et al. [6] found that physical advent is positively correlated with appearance satisfaction, and Grilo et al. [7] found a positive relation between advent evaluation and general self-esteem. Yet, these studies have focused on general self-esteem.

Whereas general self-esteem reflects how a person feels about themselves and their value in comparing to others [eight], social self-esteem is how individuals feel about themselves during social interactions with others, and how those interactions touch their social value [9]. In this way, social cocky-esteem is more affected by social interactions than general self-esteem. Social self-esteem is positively linked to use of social network sites [10, 11] whereas full general self-esteem appears to exist inversely proportional to social network sites [12, thirteen], especially in women [14]. Vogel and colleagues [fifteen] found that social comparison negatively affected general self-esteem negatively. Thus, the increment in digital media usage increased the pressure to look as good as possible because people were increasingly exposed to images and videos of very adept looking individuals [16]. On the other mitt, Steinsbekk and colleagues [14] institute that self-oriented social network sites employ was non related to general self-esteem. Therefore, social network sites might increase social self-esteem by promoting more social interactions.

Although advent can be manipulated for meliorate or for worse [17], the most common management of advent manipulation is advent enhancement rather than worsening. Advent enhancement is considered to be a self-promotion strategy in which one may capture more than attending from others [xviii]. To raise their attractiveness and to await better than same sex peers, women in Western societies use diverse tactics, such as high heels [east.g., 19], cosmetic surgeries [e.yard., 20], and/or makeup [e.g., 21]. Interestingly, Kelley [16] interviewed 132 American college women and plant that 37% of them reported they started using makeup considering they were unsatisfied with their appearance. In sixth grade girls with negative self-esteem, using makeup increases pleasance pursuit [22]. Gentina et al. [23] plant that makeup can as well serve as a ritual of transition to adulthood amid adolescents.

A recent experimental study compared women's self-perception without makeup and with professionally applied makeup and showed that fabricated up women considered themselves more feminine, attractive, more satisfied with advent, and as having college self-esteem [24]. Similarly, women wearing their usual facial cosmetics rated themselves as more attractive than when the cosmetics were removed [6]. A cross-sectional study farther reported that women who rated themselves lower on physical bewitchery used more makeup [25].

Although individual differences in physical facial bewitchery are larger than intra-individual differences caused by facial cosmetics [26], makeup is used to improve evaluation by others [6, 27] and may enhance prosocial feelings [25]. However, contrasting results were found regarding self-esteem and their relationship with makeup usage. Robertson and colleagues [25] found that self-esteem is negatively related to cosmetic usage whereas Al-Samydai et al. [28] findings pointed to a positive association. Nevertheless, the contrasting results may exist due to the characteristics of the samples: the first study was conducted on xxx British undergraduate women and the latter on 606 Jordanian women. Studies investigating the association between self-esteem and makeup usage in different sociocultural settings are needed.

There are several ways to measure appearance, including perception of physical attractiveness (e.g., facial or body attractiveness rated by others), morphological measures (east.g., muscularity, torso shape), and trunk image (e.thou., individuals' attitude toward advent). Body image is broadly used to measure appearance because it is the reflection of private satisfaction with their physical appearance and the importance placed on ever looking good [28]. Whereas appearance orientation measures the importance attributed to their own appearance, such as how important they think information technology is to e'er look good, advent evaluation measures how bonny the individual considers themselves, how satisfied they are with their own body [28]. Thus, body paradigm measures self-perception of their bewitchery and likewise the pressure they put on themselves to always look good. Researchers relating makeup and body prototype tend to arroyo only the appearance evaluation factor, leaving out appearance orientation [e.g. 6, 29], despite several studies showing the touch on social pressure exerts on individuals' cocky-perception [7], self-esteem [10], and even well-being [11].

Thus, our goal was to test if makeup usage in women (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent applying makeup per day) is predicted past general and social cocky-esteems, and trunk image (self-perceived attractiveness and importance one gives to tidiness). Despite some contrasting findings, Al-Samydai et al. [28] pointed out that makeup enhances women's social interactions and performance and Robertson et al. [25] found a positive relationship between makeup usage and self-presentation and self-consciousness. Therefore, we expected that makeup usage would be predicted by social-related aspects (appearance orientation and social self-esteem) rather than past appearance evaluation and general self-esteem.

Materials and methods

Participants

A full of 1,651 Brazilian women took part in the research. For the present report, 1,483 women between 18 and 75 years sometime (M _age = 31.08; SD = 11.15) entered in the concluding analyses. All the 168 participants younger than 18 years had their data excluded. This sample was comprised 32.2% of women with graduate degrees, 26.i% undergraduate students, 20.6% women with completed undergraduate degrees, ten.0% women with secondary education, 9.3% graduate students, and 1.vii% with no education or unfinished secondary pedagogy. Most of the women considered themselves White (73.0%), 17.8% indicated mixed ethnicity (pardo), 4.viii% identified every bit Blackness, 2.8% equally Asian, and 1.6% indicated "Other" ethnicity.

Virtually family unit income, almost of the participants (27.4%) declared from approximately US$ 499 to 998 (exchange rate of the solar day December 28 2021), xix.iv% declared from United states$ 998 to i,496, fifteen.4% declared from US$ 166 to 498, fifteen% declared more than The states$ 2,494, xi.8% declared from US$ 1,497 to 1,995, eight% from United states$ 1,996 to 2,493, and 3.one% up to US$ 165. The average Brazilian income per capita was United states of america$ 313 in 2018 (when about of the data was collected) [30]. Most participants were from Southeast Brazil.

Instruments

Participants completed a Qualtrics online questionnaire (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), containing sociodemographic questions, Cosmetics Utilise Inventory and boosted questions, Social self-esteem questionnaire, General self-esteem questionnaire, and Body paradigm scale.

Sociodemographic questions.

This department included questions such as age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, human relationship status, current pregnancy, and current socioeconomic status (educational level and family income).

Cosmetics apply inventory [31].

Nosotros used a part of an adapted version of the inventory [32] in which participants rate on a 7-point-scale the frequency they use from "never" to "e'er": one. base of operations, concealer, and/or pulverization; 2. mascara; 3. eyeliner or middle pencil; 4. shade; and v. lipstick and/or gloss. Higher averaged scores correspond to higher levels of facial corrective use. We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese. All the variables were positively associated (i.east., women who utilise more than one blazon of makeup tend to use the other types of makeup more frequently, also) (Come across S1 Table in S1 File).

Further, participants responded about their monthly expenses with makeup using the following options (in our survey in Brazilian Reals): USD 0, up to USD ii.fifty, USD 2.fifty–6, USD six–ten, USD x–xv, USD 15–20, USD 20–25, USD 25–l, more USD l. Time spent applying makeup per day was responded using the following options: less than 5 minutes, 5–10 minutes, 10–twenty minutes, xx–30 minutes, more than xxx minutes.

Social cocky-esteem questionnaire [9].

This is a 30-particular musical instrument composed of phrases describing i'due south ability to deal with unlike social situations. The participant answers how accurately each sentence describes what her behavior or feelings would be in each situation on a half-dozen-signal Likert calibration. The higher the score, the greater the participant's ease in dealing with social situations (eastward.m., "I brand friends hands"). We used the version translated (and dorsum translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.95).

Full general self-esteem questionnaire [8].

This is a 10-detail instrument with a four-point Likert response scale. Information technology contains affirmations almost individuals' feelings and behavior about themselves (e.g., "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself"). We used the version translated and adapted into Portuguese and validated for the Brazilian population (Cronbach α = 0.91) [33].

Body image scale [28].

This is an attitudinal body paradigm musical instrument composed of ii subscales measuring appearance evaluation and appearance orientation with a five-point Likert response calibration. The subscales are equanimous of 17 statements, 11 of them related to advent orientation (e.one thousand. "It is important that I always expect expert") and 6 related to advent evaluation (east.g. "I similar my looks but the way they are"). We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.82).

Procedure

After written ethical approval by the local Institutional Review Board of Anhembi Morumbi University (nr. 2.960.684), participants were recruited through social media and institutional due east-mails. Thus, it was a sample based on convenience, and does not correspond the Brazilian population. Participants completed informed consent and so responded to anonymous online questionnaires. Inclusion criteria were to have access to the Internet and to be a Brazilian woman eighteen years quondam or older. Participants took thirty minutes on boilerplate to consummate the survey.

Data analyses

First, using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 21 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA), we checked data normality (Run across S2 Table in S1 File). Most information were not normally distributed, and we thus conducted exploratory non-parametric correlations among makeup usage, social and general cocky-esteems, and body image in social club to verify correlations among the independent variables and test for multicollinearity. The independent variables were weakly and moderately associated, with depression risk of multicollinearity (VIF ranged from 1.002 to 2.002).

2d, to test for a possible effect on makeup usage, social and general self-esteems, and trunk image entered every bit contained variables into categorical regressions (CATREG). We chose to use this analysis because it uses an optimal scaling feature that solves the problem of lack of linearity of the scales and it calculates an optimal regression equation and the upshot of each independent variable (appearance orientation, appearance evaluation, general self-esteem, and social self-esteem) on the dependent variables (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and fourth dimension spent doing makeup per day). All statistical tests were performed with the significance level indicated at .05.

Results

Makeup usage descriptives

About participants use makeup half of the time (26.2%) or sometimes (24.9%) and 44.ix% spend less than 5 minutes applying makeup per day. Also, 19.6% spent nothing and 19.vi% spent upwardly to USD two.50 on makeup per month. Encounter S3 to S5 Tables in S1 File for detailed data.

Correlations betwixt makeup usage and social and full general self-esteem, and trunk prototype attitudes

Kendall correlation indicated that money spent on makeup per month, time spent applying makeup per twenty-four hour period, and frequency of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated (See Table 1). Farther, these iii measures of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated to appearance orientation. Coin spent on makeup per month and frequency of makeup usage are weakly and positively related to social cocky-esteem. Frequency of makeup usage also presented a positive and weak correlation with general self-esteem. Social self-esteem was moderately and positively correlated with general self-esteem, weakly and positively associated with appearance evaluation and advent orientation. General cocky-esteem was moderately and positively associated with advent evaluation.

The sociodemographic variables (age, family income, and educational level) were weakly and positively associated with money spent on makeup, frequency of makeup usage, general self-esteem, social self-esteem, and appearance evaluation. There were no associations among the sociodemographic variables and time spent on makeup and appearance orientation.

The effect of full general and social cocky-esteems and body prototype on makeup usage

To test for a possible effect of social and personal cocky-esteems, and body image on makeup usage, we conducted 3 chiselled regression models, with coin spent on makeup per month, time spent applying makeup per twenty-four hour period, and frequency of makeup usage every bit dependent variables. Nosotros also included the sociodemographic variables age, family unit income, and educational level in the analyses in social club to control the variability of our sample (Table 2).

Only appearance orientation and age predicted time spent applying makeup per 24-hour interval and frequency of makeup usage, whereas all variables except educational level predicted money spent on makeup.

Give-and-take

The aim of the study was to verify if general and social self-esteems and body image (i.e., advent orientation and advent evaluation) were associated with makeup usage amongst Brazilian women. Altogether, our findings suggested that women who experience comfortable with their appearance and accept higher general cocky-esteem spent less money on makeup whereas women with higher social self-esteem spent more than money on makeup; and women who allocated more importance to the way they looked not only spent more than money on makeup merely spent more than time applying makeup and using makeup more than frequently.

Appearance orientation was a significant predictor of makeup usage. Thus, women who requite more importance to their advent and are always groovy, use makeup more frequently, spend more time applying makeup, and spend more coin on makeup. Similarly, Robertson et al. [25] found a positive human relationship between cosmetic usage and self-presentation. In women, appearance orientation is besides linked to neuroticism and narcissism [34], eating disorders [35], and bulldoze for muscularity in men [36]. Women frequently take their bodies objectified, i.eastward. treated similar an object that exists to please others. Through self-objectification, they disconnect their bodies from their persons, and sometimes internalize this perspective and outset evaluating and treating themselves as mere bodies [37], highlighting the visual assessment. Women with higher levels of cocky-objectification would identify more attention to their advent and grooming instead of other aspects, such every bit identity evolution. Therefore, appearance orientation may be used as a measure of self-objectification [34]. A deeper investigation nigh appearance orientation and self-objectification should be conducted in order to clarify if they are in fact measuring similar traits.

Further, when adolescents with positive body image were interviewed, they claimed their family unit and friends used to talk about their appearance, but not virtually their bodies (i.e., they annotate about their habiliment, pilus style, makeup, etc., simply not near their physical traits, such as how fat they are [38]). Thus, someone'south appearance orientation is more than liable in commentaries than someone's trunk. It suggests that advent orientation would be more than susceptible to social influences than advent evaluation, and consequently, would be positively related to appearance modifications, including makeup usage. This would also explain why accepting oneself is negatively related to purchasing makeup.

Corroborating Frisén and Holmqvist's [38] results, we establish that women with college appearance evaluation, i.east. women who were more than satisfied with their appearance, tended to spend less money on makeup. Our written report supported findings of Robertson and colleagues [25] who reported an inverse association between corrective usage and cocky-rated physical advent. For these individuals, makeup usage may not be related to satisfaction with their body, so information technology does non make them feel physically more attractive. Indeed, cosmetics take a smaller touch on individuals college in attractiveness than on less bonny individuals [26].

Frederick and Reynolds [39] presented the cognitive behavioral model in which makeup would be an appearance fixing strategy, beingness a response to emotions and thoughts related to trunk image. That is, factors experienced throughout an individual'due south life influenced one'south body paradigm past associating their advent schema. Future experiences can activate this model, influencing how this new information is processed. The thoughts and emotions related to one's schema will answer by adjusting self-regulatory processes. Makeup usage, thus, would be a way to improve torso paradigm through fixing imperfections in people who are not satisfied with their appearance (appearance schema) and are concerned well-nigh it.

Additionally, Mafra et al. [xl] conducted a study on Brazilian men and women with low socioeconomic condition and found that spending more money on cosmetics did non make women feel amend about themselves (e.yard., more attractive). According to a review past Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [41], positive body image is the acceptance of one's own body, feeling happy and complete even knowing its imperfections and that it is not consistent with idealized images. Nevertheless, others' perceptions also may influence individuals' positive body paradigm [39] also equally the blazon of watched advertisement may influence women'south self-esteem, torso prototype, and mood [42].

Social self-esteem is a positive predictor of money spent on makeup per month. Although Robertson et al. [25] constitute a negative association between cosmetic usage and social confidence, boyish girls reported to use makeup because they wanted to feel admired by the public [23], suggesting that makeup functions amend social impressions. In a recent review, Davis and Arnocky [18] argued that makeup may be used as a strategy to enhance social status. In fact, also bringing advantages in alluring mates and competing with rivals [21], makeup usage was positively associated with social interaction and performance [43], with women who employ makeup being perceived as more than competent [44], more dominant, and higher in social prestige [45]. Every bit social interactions are important for people with loftier social self-esteem levels, makeup may be a tool to increase conviction in interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, women who feel good almost themselves (i.e., with high general self-esteem) tended to spend less money on makeup usage. This consequence also corroborated Robertson et al. [25], in which a negative correlation between makeup usage and general cocky-esteem was found.

According to a recent study, makeup employ also affects other women. Afterwards being exposed to pictures of same-sex peers wearing makeup, Australian undergraduate women reported willingness to modify their advent, for case, hair, skin [29]. Possibly, women who give more importance to physical appearance invest more money also on other beauty products, not just makeup. Futurity research investigating how other products that can enhance women'southward advent relate to appearance orientation and platonic stereotypes of dazzler could make a groovy contribution to the field.

Overall, our written report suggested that women with greater self-esteem associated with social interactions would attribute higher importance to their advent, resulting in more makeup usage. Makeup usage may enhance women'southward conviction to deal with social situations. Yet, our written report was cross-sectional, thus an experimental study could complement our approach by testing if social-related aspects influence the consumption of makeup more than intrinsic-related aspects. Another of import point to highlight is that the social influence on makeup usage is rather speculative since nosotros accept not directly asked the participants about the possible impact of the media and social networks on their body image. Finally, our sample was composed by a majority of highly educated Caucasian women of medium to high family incomes, which does not fully represent the Brazilian population (generally composed past Black and mixed ethnicities in depression educational levels and low family income earnings). A study trying to attain more women outside the university may better represent the Brazilian population.

Supporting data

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for English proofreading and helpful suggestions fabricated by Prof. Daniel J. Kruger. We are as well grateful to the participants and researchers who donated their fourth dimension for this to become a reality.

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Does Makeup Raise Or Lower Self Esteem,

Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0265197

Posted by: jonesorid1941.blogspot.com

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